Respiratory System - Notes (Changes and Suggestions in blue
and green -
3/6/06)
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1.
Name and describe the contributions to homeostasis made by the
respiratory system's two main functions for homeostasis.
- gas exchange = obtaining O2 for
energy, eliminating CO2 to prevent acidosis and to regulate pH
disturbances from any source.
- sound production = for communication
2.
Explain the need for adaptability in gas exchange.
- must or ¯ gas exchange to maintain O2, CO2,
and pH homeostasis as body activity or ¯ or other factors disturb O2,
CO2, or pH.
3.
Name and describe the three processes involved in gas exchange.
(pp. 95-96)
(1) ventilation (air exchange =
breathing)
(2) perfusion (pulmonary blood flow)
(pp. 69, 102, 106)
(3) diffusion (alveolar exchange of O2
and CO2) (pp. 102, 106)
4.
Name and briefly describe each of the two parts of ventilation.
(pp. 95, 97)
- (1) inspiration is active using the diaphragm
(more efficient) and or other muscles like the external intercostals
(less efficient) to increase volume and decrease pressure
- (2) expiration is normally passive from
elastic recoil of the thorax and abdomen, but may be active using muscles
(internal intercostals, abdominal)
5. Describe work of breathing and
explain its significance relative to the goals of the respiratory system.
- work of breathing =
amount of O2 used for ventilation
- usually less than 5% of total O2
brought in by the respiratory system
- work of breathing
consumes some of the O2 brought in by the system, leaving the
remainder for use by the body
- work of breathing leaves
less O2 for the remainder of the body
- work of breathing
produces CO2, requiring that the respiratory system eliminated this
CO2 as well as that produced by the rest of the body
- work of breathing means
more CO2 must be removed to prevent CO2 build-up
- work of breathing acts counter to the goals of the respiratory
system
6.
Compare and contrast the mechanisms and outcomes from quiet ventilation
(quiet breathing) and forced ventilation (forced breathing).
- quiet ventilation moves less air at slower rates =
less minute volume than forced ventilation (See objectives above for
details).
- also, quiet respiration is passive, while forced
expiration is active and uses more O2 and produces more CO2
7.
Explain how the rate of ventilation is determined.
- rate of ventilation = minute volume = volume
per breath x breaths/minute
8.
Name and define total lung capacity and the parts thereof plus dead
space. (p. 105)
- total lung capacity = tidal volume + inspiratory
reserve capacity + expiratory reserve capacity + residual volume
- dead space = volume in airways
9.
Name and explain the importance of the five requirements for
proper ventilation.
- (1) open airways (p. 94), (2) defense mechanisms (pp. 99, 100), (3) proper
pressure changes (p. 97), (4) compliance, (5) control systems (p. 99)
10. Name two age changes that
affect each of the five requirements for proper ventilation, describe the
results of these age changes on ventilation, and describe the results of these
changes on (1) maximum minute volume, (2) maximum rate of gas exchange, (3)
maximum rate of providing O2 and removing CO2 for body
cells, and (4) work of breathing.
(1) open airways
(1) mucous has
viscosity plus
(2) cilia have ¯
number and ¯
rate of movement -> ¯ clearance -> narrower airways -> ¯ max.
minute volume and work of breathing -> ¯ maximum rate of gas
exchange and ¯
O2 and CO2 servicing
(3) narrowing smaller airways
-> ¯
maximum minute volume plus work of breathing plus residual volume (
closing volume) -> ¯ maximum rate of gas exchange and ¯ O2
and CO2 servicing
(4) widening larger airways
->
dead space ->
stale air in lungs -> ¯ rate of diffusion -> ¯ maximum rate of gas
exchange and ¯O2
and CO2 servicing (Note that age-related TV helps compensate for residual
volume
(2) defense mechanisms
(1) ¯ defense mechanisms
(mucociliary clearance; swallow, gag, cough; ?phagocytosis?; immune function)
->
risk of respiratory blockage, injury, and infection -> risk
of limited respiratory functioning
(3) proper pressure changes
(1) weaker muscles -> ¯
maximum minute volume
(2) stiffer skeletal elements
plus
(3) altered chest shape and
posture -> ¯
maximum pressure changes -> ¯ maximum minute volume plus work
of breathing (partial compensation by diaphragmatic breathing)
(4) limper lungs (altered
collagen helices) -> ¯ recoil -> ¯ maximum minute volume plus
work of breathing
(5) shallower alveoli (p.
104)-> ¯
surface area -> ¯
surface tension -> ¯ recoil - ¯ maximum minute volume plus work
of breathing
- all changes-> ¯
maximum rate of gas exchange and ¯ O2 and
CO2 servicing
(4) compliance
(1) limp collagen helices -> lung
compliance
(2) stiffness of all other
parts overrides
lung compliance -> overall respiratory stiffness
-> ¯
maximum rate and amount of inspiration -> ¯ maximum minute volume and
work of breathing -> ¯ maximum rate of gas exchange and ¯ O2
and CO2 servicing
(5) control systems
(1) ¯ sensitivity of neurons
(respiratory center, aorta, carotids, ?muscle and joints?) -> ¯ detection of altered O2,
CO2, and pH -> ¯ adaptation
(2) ?decline in neuron pathways?
-> reduced control
(3) ¯ lung sensitivity to
norepinephrine -> ¯ responsiveness
(1) + (2) + (3) -> ¯ speed and degree of adaptation - more rapid dyspnea on
exertion
Overall results include ¯ maximum flow rate, ¯ volume/breath, ¯
maximum breathing rate (breaths/minute) -> ¯ maximum minute volume plus
work of breathing -> ¯ maximum rate of useful gas exchange
11. Describe age changes in lung volumes
and the effects of these changes on the ability of the respiratory system to
carry out its functions. (p. 105)
- decreases in TLC, IR, and ER with increases in RV and dead space (and slight
increase in TV) cause decrease in maximum minute volume and decrease in
efficiency due to mixing a lower amount of fresh air with a higher volume of
stale air. All these changes cause decrease in rate of diffusion and therefore
decrease maximum rate of activity.
12. Describe the overall effects of age
changes altering ventilation on a person's ability to carry out activities of
different intensities.
- age changes affecting ventilation are not important during light or moderate
rates of activity
13. Describe the overall effects of age
changes in pulmonary vessels (perfusion) on gas exchange.
- little or no effect except possibly a decline in
maximum rate of perfusion and maximum rate of gas exchange
14. Name the three requirements
for effective diffusion.
- large, thin, moist surface area
15. Describe the two age changes
in alveoli and indicate their effect on diffusion. (p. 104)
- flatter (shallower) and thicker -> decline in
maximum rate of diffusion
16. Name the two overall effects
of age changes in the respiratory system on its ability to provide homeostasis
for O2 and CO2 and pH.
- lower maximum rate of gas exchange plus
decreased efficiency from increased work of breathing -> decline in maximum
rate of work
- decreased rate and amount of adaptability of
respiratory system -> faster dyspnea on exertion
- note: retention of adequate respiratory
functioning for light or moderate activity levels
17. Describe the effects of amounts of
exercise and levels of health on age changes affecting ventilation.
- exercise and good health minimizes rate and degree
of age changes
- lack of exercise and poor health increase rate and
degree of age changes
18. Describe non-biological effects from
age changes in the respiratory system related to biological age changes in
respiration.
- select specific examples of social, psychological,
and economic effects and interactions with biological and the other types of
effects
19. Name several types of air pollution
and explain why reducing exposure to air pollution is important.
- smoking, occupational air pollution (fibers, coal,
sawdust, asbestos, exhaust fumes, solvent fumes), urban air pollution, farm air
pollution
- air pollution increases the adverse effects of aging
on respiration, leading to decreased maximum speed and endurance, disability,
disease, and death
20. Name four reasons for the
increased incidence and severity of respiratory system diseases as age
increases.
- (1) increased risk and incidences of exposure to
factors, (2) increased duration of exposure to factors, (3) lowered body
defenses, (4) more time for slow diseases to develop
21. Name ways (one for each) that lung
cancer reduces each of the three processes in respiration (ventilation,
perfusion, and diffusion).
- ventilation; narrower airways, pressure on
lungs, fill alveoli
- perfusion; distorts, compresses, and reduces
blood vessels (hemorrhaging)
- diffusion; thickens alveolar walls, replaces
alveolar walls
22. For either chronic
bronchitis, emphysema or pneumonia, explain three
ways that the one you choose reduces respiratory functioning.
- chronic bronchitis: produces
mucous (narrows airways), ¯ cilia and ciliary action (¯ clearance and risk
of infection), swelling of airways (narrowness -> ¯ ventilation, especially
expiration),
coughing (
work of breathing)
- CLE -> collapsing airways ->
residual air and work of breathing and ¯ blood vessels -> ¯
perfusion (and CHF)
- PLE -> elimination of alveoli -> ¯
ventilation (¯
elasticity and ¯
surface tension and
residual air) and work of breathing, ¯perfusion (¯
blood vessels and CHF, ¯diffusion (¯ surface area)
- pneumonia; bacterial -> filled
airways and possible death of lung tissue: viral -> thicker
respiratory membranes: fungi and TB -> death of lung tissue: Dusts
and vapors -> pulmonary fibrosis -> lung stiffness (and ¯
vessels and thicker respiratory membranes)
- blebs -> pneumothorax -> decrease inspiration
-> decreased ventilation
23. Describe non-biological effects from
age changes in the respiratory system related to diseases of the respiratory
system.
- select specific examples of social, psychological,
and economic effects and interactions with biological and the other types of
effects
24. List four adverse effects from
smoking including three from outside the respiratory system.
- free radical formation; decreasing antioxidants;
amplifies age changes and incidences of diseases in skin; increases risks of
high blood pressure, blood clots, and atherosclerosis; increases incidence of
cataracts; increases risks of osteoporosis; increases risk of diabetes
mellitus; decreases immune system functioning; increases risk of many cancers.
25. Name two adverse effects either
from snoring or from age changes in vocalization.
- snoring: (1) blood pressure, (2) ¯ O2
and
CO2, (3) overworks heart, (4) disrupts sleep, (5) disturbs others,
(6) social, psychological, and economic side effect
-vocalization: (1) ¯ control of volume and
pitch, (2) ¯
control of word formation -> difficulty being understood, (3) ¯
volume; all changes -> social and psychological impact.
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2020: Augustine G. DiGiovanna, Ph.D., Salisbury, Maryland
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